Environmental crises at the Permian–Triassic mass extinction

The link between the Permian–Triassic mass extinction (252 million years ago) and emplacement of Siberian Traps Large Igneous Province (STLIP) was first proposed in 1990s. However, complex cascade volcanically driven environmental biological events that led to largest known remains challenging reconstruct. In this Review, we critically evaluate geological evidence discuss current hypotheses surrounding kill mechanisms extinction. initial extrusive pyroclastic phase STLIP volcanism coeval with a widespread crisis terrestrial biota increased stress on marine animal species at high northern latitudes. ecological disturbance probably started 60–370 thousand before ocean, indicating different response times ecosystems eruptions, related seasonality, ozone depletion acid rain, effects which could have lasted more than 1 years. mainly intrusive followed is linked final collapse rapid (around 60 years) 81–94% species, potentially combination global warming, anoxia ocean acidification. Nevertheless, ultimate reasons for exceptional severity remain debated. Improved geochronology (especially records products), tighter constraints higher-resolution Earth system modelling are needed resolve causal relations volcanism, perturbations patterns ecosystem collapse. At boundary ago), series crises triggered by eruptions caused 70% vertebrate families. This Review discusses relationships boundary.